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Jesus Christ Foundations Bible Christian theology History and traditions
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Christianity is a monotheisticThe Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume IX, Monotheism; William F. Albright, From the Stone Age to Christianity; H. Richard Niebuhr; About.com, Monotheistic Religion resources; Jonathan Kirsch, God Against the Gods; Linda Woodhead, An Introduction to Christianity; The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia Monotheism; The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, monotheism; New Dictionary of Theology, Paul, p. 496-99; David Vincent Meconi, "Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity" in Journal of Early Christian Studies, p. 111–12 religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recounted in the New Testament.BBC, BBC - Religion & Ethics - Christianity As of the early 21st century, it has between 1.5 billion"between 1,250 and 1,750 million adherents, depending on the criteria employed": McGrath, Alister E. Christianity: An Introduction. 2006, page xv1."1.5 thousand million Christians": Hinnells, John R. The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion. 2005, page 441. and 2.1 billion adherents, http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html. more than any other religion, and representing about a quarter of the world\'s population.Hinnells, John R. The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion. 2005, page 441. It is the state religion of at least sixteen countries.
Its followers, known as Christians, believe Jesus to have beenChristians believe that Jesus is still alive, and therefore state that a more accurate characterisation of their belief is that Jesus is the Son of God and the Messiah. the Son of God and the Messiah (or Christ) prophesied in the Old Testament, the part of their scriptures they have in common with Judaism.Mortimer Chambers, The Western Experience Volume II chapter 5; The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion, p. 158. To Christians, Jesus Christ is a teacher, the model of a pious life, the revealer of God, the mediator of salvation[clarify] and the saviour who suffered, died and was resurrected in order to bring about salvation from sin for all.[clarify]McGrath, Alister E. Christianity:An Introduction, Blackwell Publishing (2006), p. 4-6. ISBN 1405108991. Christians maintain that Jesus ascended into heaven and most denominations teach that Jesus will judge the living and the dead, granting everlasting life to his followers. The "good news" of Jesus\' ministry is called the Gospel.
The Trinity is often regarded as an essential doctrine of mainstream Christianity. It is held by many to be a complex concept and there are varying interpretations. The most common understanding of the Holy Trinity, as espoused in the Nicene Creed, is one God that exists as three Persons – Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. "Father, Son and Holy Spirit" represents both the immanence and transcendence of God. God is believed to be infinite and God\'s presence may be perceived through the actions of Jesus and the Holy Spirit.Fowler, Jeaneane D. World Religions:An Introduction for Students. p. 58. Sussex Academic Press (1997). ISBN 1898723486.
The first time the disciples were called "Christians" (Greek Χριστιανός), meaning "followers of Christ", was in Antioch.Acts 11:26 Ignatius of Antioch was the first Christian to use the label in self-reference. The earliest recorded use of the term Christianity (Greek Χριστιανισμός) was also by Ignatius of Antioch, around 100 AD.Elwell, Walter A. & Comfort, Philip Wesley. Tyndale Bible Dictionary, p. 266, 828. Tyndale House Publishers (2001). ISBN 0842370897.
Like Judaism and Islam, Christianity is classified as an Abrahamic religion (see also, Judeo-Christian).J.Z.Smith 98, p. 276.Anidjar 2001, p. 3Fowler, Jeaneane D. World Religions:An Introduction for Students. Sussex Academic Press (1997), p. 131. ISBN 1898723486. Through missionary work and colonisation, Christianity spread firstly in the Middle East, North Africa, Europe and parts of India and subsequently throughout the entire world.McManners, John. Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Oxford University Press (1990), p. 301–303.
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In spite of important differences of interpretation and opinion, Christians share a set of beliefs that they hold as essential to their faith.Olson, Roger E. The Mosaic of Christian Belief. InterVarsity Press (2002). ISBN 9780830826957.
A depiction of Jesus and Mary, the Theotokos of Vladimir (12th century)
Christians believe that, as the Messiah, Jesus was anointed by God as ruler and savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus\' coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept. The core Christian belief is that, through the death and resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life.Metzger, Bruce M. and Michael Coogan, editors. Oxford Companion to the Bible. Pp 513, 649. Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0195046455.
While there have been theological disputes over the nature of Jesus, Christians generally believe that Jesus is God incarnate and "true God and true man" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not sin.[clarify] As fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again. According to the Bible, "God raised him from the dead,"Acts 2:24, Romans 10:9, 1 Cor 15:15, Acts 2:31-32, 3:15, 3:26, 4:10, 5:30, 10:40-41, 13:30, 13:34, 13:37, 17:30-31, 1 Cor 6:14, 2 Cor 4:14, Gal 1:1, Eph 1:20, Col 2:12, 1 Thess 1:10, Heb 13:20, 1 Pet 1:3, 1:21 he ascended to heaven, is "seated at the right hand of the Father"http://en.wikisource.orgNicene_Creed and will return againActs 1:9-11 to fulfil the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment and final establishment of the Kingdom of God.
According to the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary. Little of Jesus\' childhood is recorded in the canonical Gospels, however infancy Gospels were popular in antiquity. In comparison, his adulthood, especially the week before his death, are well documented in the Gospels contained within the New Testament. The Biblical accounts of Jesus\' ministry include: his baptism, miracles, preaching, teaching, and deeds.
Christians consider the resurrection of Jesus to be the cornerstone of their faith and the most important event in human history.Hanegraaff, Hank. Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity. Thomas Nelson (2000) IBSN 0849916437 . Within the body of Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two core events on which much of Christian doctrine and theology depend.[citation needed] According to the New Testament, Jesus, the central figure of Christianity, was crucified, died, buried within a tomb, and resurrected three days later.John 19:30–31, Mark 16:1, Mark 16:6 The New Testament mentions several resurrection appearances of Jesus on different occasions to his twelve apostles and disciples, including "more than five hundred brethren at once", 1 Cor. 15:6 before Jesus\' Ascension. Jesus\'s death and resurrection are the essential doctrines of the Christian faith, and are commemorated by Christians during Good Friday and Easter, particularly during the liturgical time of Holy Week. Arguments over death and resurrection claims occur at many religious debates and interfaith dialogues.Lorenzen, Thorwald. Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today. Smyth & Helwys (2003), p. 13. ISBN 1573123994 .
As Paul the Apostle, an early Christian convert, wrote, "If Christ was not raised, then all our preaching is useless, and your trust in God is useless".1 Cor. 15:14)Ball, Bryan and William Johnsson, editors. The Essential Jesus. Pacific Press (2002). ISBN 0816319294. The death and resurrection of Jesus are the most important events in Christian Theology, as they form the point in scripture where Jesus gives his ultimate demonstration that he has power over life and death and thus the ability to give people eternal life.John 3:16, 5:24, 6:39–40, 6:47, 10:10, 11:25–26, and 17:3. According to the Bible, "God raised him from the dead,"Acts 2:24, Romans 10:9, 1 Cor 15:15, Acts 2:31–32, 3:15, 3:26, 4:10, 5:30, 10:40–41, 13:30, 13:34, 13:37, 17:30–31, 1 Cor 6:14, 2 Cor 4:14, Gal 1:1, Eph 1:20, Col 2:12, 1 Thess 1:10, Heb 13:20, 1 Pet 1:3, 1:21 he ascended to heaven, to the "right hand of God,"Mark 16:19, Luke 22:69, Acts 2:33, 5:31, 7:55–56, Romans 8:34, Eph 1:20, Col 3:1, Hebrews 1:3, 1:13, 10:12, 12:2, 1 Peter 3:22 and will return againActs 1:9–11 to fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment and establishment of the Kingdom of God, see also Messianism and Messianic Age.The Parousia is the term used in the Bible, see Strong\'s G3952 for details, which includes the Thayer\'s Lexicon definition: "In the N.T. especially of the advent, i.e.,the future, visible, return from heaven of Jesus, the Messiah, to raise the dead, hold the last judgment, and set up formally and gloriously the kingdom of God." According to the Bauer lexicon: "of Christ, and nearly always of his Messianic Advent in glory to judge the world at the end of this age."
Most Christians accept the New Testament account as a historical account, including that of the resurrection which is central to their faith. Some modern scholars use the belief of Jesus\' followers in the resurrection as a point of departure for establishing the continuity of the historical Jesus and the proclamation of the early church.Fuller, Reginald H. The Foundations of New Testament Christology. Pg 11. Scribners (1965). ISBN 068415532X . Some liberal Christians do not accept a literal bodily resurrectionA Jesus Seminar conclusion: "in the view of the Seminar, he did not rise bodily from the dead; the resurrection is based instead on visionary experiences of Peter, Paul, and Mary."Funk, Robert. The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?. Polebridge Press (1998). ISBN 0060629789., seeing the story as richly symbolic and spiritually nourishing[clarify] myth. A group known as the Gnostics argued against the singular importance of the Resurrection, as they had differing views as to how the passages should be interpreted, many believing Jesus was never a human and so could not have died (see: Docetism). Carl Jung suggested that the crucifixion-resurrection account was the forceful spiritual symbol of, literally, God-as-Yahweh becoming God-as-Job.Jung, Carl (1971). The Answer to Job. The Portable Jung. Penguin. Retrieved on 2007-12-31.
Soteriology is the branch of Christian doctrinal theology that deals with salvation through Jesus Christ.title url Soteriology. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company (2006). Retrieved on 2007-12-31. Christians believe salvation is a gift by means of the unmerited grace of God. Christians believe that, through faith in Jesus, one can be saved from sin and eternal death. The crucifixion of Jesus is explained as an atoning sacrifice, which, in the words of the Gospel of John, "takes away the sins of the world." One\'s reception of salvation is related to justification.Metzger, Bruce M. and Michael Coogan, editors. Oxford Companion to the Bible. p. 405 Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0-19-504645-5.
The operation and effects of grace are understood differently by different traditions. Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy teach the necessity of the free will to cooperate with grace.Catechism of the Catholic Church, Grace and Justification Reformed theology places distinctive emphasis on grace by teaching that individuals are completely incapable of self-redemption, but the grace of God overcomes even the unwilling heart.Westminster Confession, Chapter X; Charles Spurgeon, A Defense of Calvinism. Arminianism takes a synergistic approach while Lutheran doctrine teaches justification by grace alone through faith alone. Richard D. Balge Martin Luther, Augustinian
The "Hospitality of Abraham" by Andrei Rublev: The three angels represent the three persons of God
The term trinitarian denotes those Christians who hold to a belief in the concept of Trinity. Trinity refers to the teaching within some branches and denominations of Christianity that the one God is comprised of three distinct aspects or \'persons\'; these being referred to as \'the Father\' (the heavenly existence of God), \'the Son\' (Jesus Christ - God\'s earthly incarnation as related in the Bible, and now held to coexist with the Father), and \'the Holy Spirit\' (sometimes referred to as \'the Holy Ghost\'). Together, these three persons are sometimes called the GodheadJ.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, p. 87-90.T. Desmond Alexander, New Dictionary of Biblical Theology, p. 514-515Alister E. McGrath, Historical Theology p. 61., although there is no single term in use in Scripture to denote the unified GodheadMetzger, Bruce M. and Michael Coogan, editors. Oxford Companion to the Bible. Pg . 782 Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0-19-504645-5.. In the words of the Athanasian Creed, an early statement of Christian belief, "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God."J.N.D. Kelly, The Athanasian Creed, NY: Harper and Row, 1964..
According to this doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God (see Perichoresis). The distinction lies in their relations, the Father being unbegotten; the Son being eternal yet begotten of the Father; and the Holy Spirit \'proceeding\' from Father and (in Western theology) from the SonVladimir Lossky; Loraine Boettner. Regardless of this apparent difference in their origins, the three \'persons\' are each eternal and omnipotent. This is thought by Trinitarian Christians to be the revelation regarding God\'s nature which Jesus Christ came to deliver to the world, and is the foundation of their belief system.
The word trias, from which trinity is derived, is first seen in the works of Theophilus of Antioch. He wrote of "the Trinity of God (the Father), His Word (the Son) and His Wisdom (Holy Spirit)"Theophilus of Antioch Apologia ad Autolycum II 15. The term may have been in use before this time. Afterwards it appears in TertullianMcManners, John. Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Pg 50. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.Tertullian De Pudicitia chapter 21. In the following century the word was in general use. It is found in many passages of OrigenMcManners, John. Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Pg 53. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283..
Nontrinitarianism includes all Christian beliefs systems that reject the Trinity, the doctrine that God is three distinct persons in one being. Various nontrinitarian views, such as adoptionism and Arianism, existed before the Trinity was formally defined as doctrine in 325 AD.von Harnack, Adolf (1894-03-01). History of Dogma. Retrieved on 2007-06-15. “[In the 2nd century,] Jesus was either regarded as the man whom God hath chosen, in whom the Deity or the Spirit of God dwelt, and who, after being tested, was adopted by God and invested with dominion, (Adoptian Christology); or Jesus was regarded as a heavenly spiritual being (the highest after God) who took flesh, and again returned to heaven after the completion of his work on earth (pneumatic Christology)” Nontrinitarianism later appeared again in the Gnosticism of the Cathars in the 11th through 13th centuries, in the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, and in Restorationism during the 19th century. The nontrinitarian view was rejected by many early Christian bishops such as Irenaeus and subsequently by the Ecumenical Councils.McManners, John. Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Pg 35. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283. During the Reformation some nontrinitarians rejected these councils as spiritually tainted,MacCulloch, Diarmaid. The Reformation: A History. Viking Adult (2004), p. 185-187. though most Christians continued to accept the value of many of the councils.
Casper Schwenckfeld and Melchior Hoffman advanced the view that Christ was only divine and not human.R. Emmet McLaughlin Caspar Schwenckfeld, reluctant radical : his life to 1540, New Haven : Yale University Press, 1986 ISBN 0-300-03367-2Deppermann, Klaus. Melchior Hoffman: Social Unrest & Apocalyptic Vision in the Age of Reformation. ISBN 0-567-08654-2 Michael Servetus denied that the traditional doctrine of the Trinity was necessary to defend the divinity of Christ. He claimed that Jesus was God Himself in the flesh.Servetus, Michael. Restoration of Christianity. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2007. Modalists, such as Oneness Pentecostals, regard God as a single person, with the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit considered modes or roles by which the unipersonal God expresses himself,William Arnold, Is Jesus God the Father? in this way they parallel ancient Sabellians. J. N. D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, p. 119-123Robert Letham, The Holy Trinity: In Scripture, History, Theology, and Worship, p. 97-98. Latter-day Saints (commonly called Mormons) accept the divinity of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, but deny that they are the same being. Rather, they believe them to be separate beings united perfectly in will and purpose, thus making up one single Godhead. They believe that the Father, like the Son, has a glorified physical body.Doctrine and Covenants 130:22
Christianity regards the Bible, a collection of canonical books in two parts (the Old Testament and the New Testament), as authoritative. It is believed by Christians to have been written by human authors under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, and therefore for many it is held to be the inerrant Word of GodCatechism of the Catholic Church, Inspiration and Truth of Sacred Scripture (§105-108)Second Helvetic Confession, Of the Holy Scripture Being the True Word of GodChicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy, online text. Protestant Christians believe that the Bible contains all revealed truth necessary for salvation. This concept is known as Sola scripturaKeith Mathison The Shape of Sola Scriptura (2001). The books that are considered canon in the Bible vary depending upon the denomination using or defining it. These variations are a reflection of the range of traditions and councils that have convened on the subject. The Bible always includes books of the Jewish scriptures, the Tanakh, and includes additional books and reorganizes them into two parts: the books of the Old Testament primarily sourced from the Tanakh (with some variations), and the 27 books of the New Testament containing books originally written primarily in GreekPC(USA) - Presbyterian 101 - What is The Bible?. The Roman Catholic and Orthodox canons include other books from the Septuagint Greek Jewish canon which Roman Catholics call DeuterocanonicalF.F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture; Catechism of the Catholic Church, The Canon of Scripture § 120. Protestants consider these books apocryphal. Some versions of the Christian Bible have a separate Apocrypha section for the books not considered canonical by the publisherMetzger, Bruce M. and Michael Coogan, editors. Oxford Companion to the Bible. Pg . 39 Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0-19-504645-5. .
Campaigning to be a restoration of the Christian churchMormon.org, Heavenly Father Reveals His Gospel To All, denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement are distinct from other forms of Christianity in that they consider the Book of Mormon holy scripture and comparable to the BibleThe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Book of Mormon, Introduction. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints considers the Doctrine and Covenants and the Pearl of Great Price scriptural. Along with the Bible, these books are collectively called the Standard Works of the churchThe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, The Scriptures, Internet Edition However, not only do mainstream denominations not accept the Book of Mormon as scriptural, many mainstream Christians do not accept Mormonism as a Christian faith.
Though Christians largely agree on the content of the Bible, there is significant divergence in its interpretation, or exegesis. In antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed in Alexandria and Antioch. Alexandrine interpretation, exemplified by Origen, tended to read Scripture allegorically, while Antiochene interpretation adhered to the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called theoria) could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning.J.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, p. 69-78.
Roman Catholic theology distinguishes two senses of scripture: the literal and the spiritual. Catechism of the Catholic Church, The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture § 115-118
The literal sense of understanding scripture is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture and discovered by exegesis, following the rules of sound interpretation. It has three subdivisions: the allegorical, moral, and anagogical (meaning mystical or spiritual) senses.
Roman Catholic theology adds other rules of interpretation which include:
Many Protestants stress the literal sense or historical-grammatical method,R.C. Sproul, Knowing Scripture, p. 45-61; Greg Bahnsen, A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics (art. 6) some even to the extent of rejecting other senses altogether. Other Protestant interpreters make use of typology.E.g., in his commentary on Matthew 1 (§III.3) Matthew Henry interprets the twin-sons of Judah, Phares and Zara, as an allegory of the Gentile and Jewish Christians. For a contemporary treatment, see W. Edward Glenny, Typology: A Summary Of The Present Evangelical Discussion Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary believers may reach an adequate understanding of Scripture because Scripture itself is clear (or "perspicuous"), because of the help of the Holy Spirit, or both. Martin Luther believed that without God\'s help Scripture would be "enveloped in darkness." He advocated "one definite and simple understanding of Scripture."Scott Foutz, Martin Luther and Scripture John Calvin wrote, "all who…follow the Holy Spirit as their guide, find in the Scripture a clear light."John Calvin, Commentaries on the Catholic Epistles 2 Peter 3:14-18 The Second Helvetic (Latin for "Swiss")http://mb-soft.com/believe/txh/helvconf.htm Article about Helvetic confessions Confession, composed by the pastor of the Reformed church in Zurich (successor to Protestant reformer Zwingli) was adopted as a declaration of doctrine by most European Reformed churches.Second Helvetic Confession, Of Interpreting the Holy Scriptures; and of Fathers, Councils, and Traditions The Confession contains this statement about interpreting Scripture:
"We hold that interpretation of the Scripture to be orthodox and genuine which is gleaned from the Scriptures themselves (from the nature of the language in which they were written, likewise according to the circumstances in which they were set down, and expounded in the light of like and unlike passages and of many and clearer passages)." The writings of the Church Fathers, and decisions of Ecumenical Councils, though "not despise[d]," were not authoritative and could be rejected.– Second Helvetic Confession (1566)
Creeds (from Latin credo meaning "I believe") are concise doctrinal statements or confessions, usually of religious beliefs. They began as baptismal formulas and were later expanded during the Christological controversies of the fourth and fifth centuries to become statements of faith.
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The Apostles Creed (Symbolum Apostolorum) was developed between the second and ninth centuries. It is the most popular creed used in worship by Western Christians. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator. Each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was apparently used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome.Jaroslav Pelikan and Valerie Hotchkiss, editors. Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition]. Yale University Press 2003 ISBN 0300093896.
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The Nicene Creed, largely a response to Arianism, was formulated at the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople in 325 and 381 respectively, Catholics United for the Faith, "We Believe in One God"; Encyclopedia of Religion, "Arianism" and ratified as the universal creed of Christendom by the Council of Ephesus in 431. Catholic Encyclopedia, "Council of Ephesus" (1913).
The Chalcedonian Creed, developed at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, Matt Slick, Chalcedonian Creed; Christian History Institute, First Meeting of the Council of Chalcedon though not accepted by the Oriental Orthodox Churches,British Orthodox Church, The Oriental Orthodox Rejection of Chalcedon taught Christ "to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably": one divine and one human, and that both natures are perfect but are nevertheless perfectly united into one person.Pope Leo I, Letter to Flavian
The Athanasian Creed, received in the western Church as having the same status as the Nicene and Chalcedonian, says: "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons nor dividing the Substance."Catholic Encyclopedia, "Athanasian Creed" (1913).
Most Catholics, Protestants, and Orthodox accept the creeds.Our Common Heritage as Christians. The United Methodist Church. Retrieved on 2007-12-31. Restorationists oppose the use of creeds."The History of the Church", Howard A. White
Most Christians believe that upon bodily death the soul experiences the particular judgment and is either rewarded with eternal heaven or condemned to an eternal hell. The elect are called "saints" (Latin sanctus: "holy") and the process of being made holy is called sanctification. In Catholicism, those who die in a state of grace but with either unforgiven venial sins or incomplete penance, undergo purification in purgatory to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into heaven. At the second coming of Christ at the end of time, all who have died will be resurrected bodily from the dead for the Last Judgement, whereupon Jesus will fully establish the Kingdom of God in fulfillment of scriptural prophecies. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologicum, Supplementum Tertiae Partis questions 69 through 99Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion, Book Three, Ch. 25. www.reformed.org. Retrieved on 2008-01-01.
Some groups do not distinguish a particular judgment from the general judgment at the end of time, teaching instead that souls remain in stasis until this time.Spitz, Lewis, The Protestant Reformation. Concordia Publishing House (2003) ISBN 0570033209. These groups, and others that do not believe in the intercession of saints, generally do not employ the word "saint" to describe those in heaven. Universalists hold that eventually all will experience salvation, thereby rejecting the concept of an eternal hell for those who are not saved.
Christians believe that Jesus is the mediator of the New Covenant. His famous Sermon on the Mount is considered by many Christian scholars to be the antitype of the proclamation of the Old Covenant by Moses from Mount Sinai.
Justin Martyr described 2nd century Christian liturgy in his First Apology (c. 150) to Emperor Antoninus Pius, and his description remains relevant to the basic structure of Christian liturgical worship:
Thus, as Justin described, Christians assemble for communal worship on Sunday, the day of the resurrection, though other liturgical practices often occur outside this setting. Scripture readings are drawn from the Old and New Testaments, but especially the Gospels. Often these are arranged on an annual cycle, using a book called a lectionary. Instruction is given based on these readings, called a sermon, or homily. There are a variety of congregational prayers, including thanksgiving, confession, and intercession, which occur throughout the service and take a variety of forms including recited, responsive, silent, or sung. The Lord\'s Prayer, or Our Father, is regularly prayed. The Eucharist (called Holy Communion, or the Lord\'s Supper) is the part of liturgical worship that consists of a consecrated meal, usually bread and wine. Justin Martyr described the Eucharist:
| “ | "And this food is called among us Eukaristia [the Eucharist], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Saviour, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh."Justin Martyr, First Apology §LXVII | ” |
Some Christian denominations view communion as indicating those who are already united in the church, restricting participation to their members not in a state of mortal sin (closed communion). Most other churches view communion as a means to unity, rather than an end, and invite all Christians or even anyone to participate (open communion). In some denominations, participation is decided by prior arrangement with a church leader.
Some groups depart from this traditional liturgical structure. A division is often made between "High" church services, characterized by greater solemnity and ritual, and "Low" services, but even within these two categories there is great diversity in forms of worship. Seventh-day Adventists meet on Saturday (the original Sabbath), while others do not meet on a weekly basis. Charismatic or Pentecostal congregations may spontaneously feel led by the Holy Spirit to action rather than follow a formal order of service, including spontaneous prayer. Quakers sit quietly until moved by the Holy Spirit to speak. Some Evangelical services resemble concerts with rock and pop music, dancing, and use of multimedia. For groups which do not recognize a priesthood distinct from ordinary believers the services are generally lead by a minister, preacher, or pastor. Still others may lack any formal leaders, either in principle or by local necessity. Some churches use only a cappella music, either on principle (e.g. many Churches of Christ object to the use of instruments in worship) or by tradition (as in Orthodoxy).
Worship can be varied for special events like baptisms or weddings in the service or significant feast days. In the early church Christians and those yet to complete initiation would separate for the Eucharistic part of the worship. In many churches today, adults and children will separate for all or some of the service to receive age-appropriate teaching. Such children\'s worship is often called Sunday school or Sabbath school (Sunday schools are often held before rather than during services).
The Eucharist
In Christian belief and practice, a sacrament is a rite, instituted by Christ, that mediates grace, constituting a sacred mystery. The term is derived from the Latin word sacramentum, which was used to translate the Greek word for mystery. (13 March 1997) The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 3rd edition. USA: Oxford University Press, 1435-6. ISBN 0–19–211655–X. Views concerning both what rites are sacramental, and what it means for an act to be a sacrament vary among Christian denominations and traditions.
The most conventional functional definition of a sacrament is that it is an outward sign, instituted by Christ, that conveys an inward, spiritual grace through Christ. The two most widely accepted sacraments are Baptism and the Eucharist, however, the majority of Christians recognize seven Sacraments or Divine Mysteries : Baptism, Confirmation (Chrismation in the Orthodox tradition), and the Eucharist, Holy Orders, Reconciliation of a Penitent (confession), Anointing of the Sick, and Matrimony. Taken together, these are the Seven Sacraments as recognised by churches in the High church tradition - notably Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Independent Catholic, Old Catholic and some Anglicans. Most other denominations
